Inequality and Development

Inequality and Development Introduction Development is slow but gradual process that is marked by changes in lifestyle, processes, technology, policies and other aspects that affect human life. Human beings desire to use modern technology to ensure there is efficiency in production processes. In addition, they hope to move very fast from one place to another and access information within a very short period (Muilanovic 27).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Inequality and Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These and other aspects of modern societies propel people to use various ways of ensuring that they are placed in strategic positions to acquire wealth, power and influence that will help them to control others. This has led to inequalities in various spheres and there are fears that competition for the available limited resources will push people to use unethical and illegal survival tactics. Inequality occurs in various forms, incl uding social, political and economic and each of these aspects has significant impacts on the society. This essay presents different ways that show the impacts of inequality on development. Definitions Inequality refers to unproportional and unfair allocation, access, distribution and provision of social, political and economic resources to people (Duflo 9). This means that this term covers all aspects that show unfair consideration given to people of a particular group. This vice makes some people to be perceived to be more special than others yet this is not supposed to be the case. Equality exists when fair measures are used to allocate people resources and ensure every person gets what they deserve. Development refers to the progress made by individuals and is usually marked by improving living conditions, infrastructure, economy and access to quality social services (Duflo 11). Development is measured by comparing events and situations between two or more societies during diffe rent periods. This aspect may be positive or negative depending on its impacts on the society. Negative development means that the society is experiencing serious challenges in promoting equality among its members. On the other hand, positive development means that people have equal and reasonable access to resources and thus nobody violates their rights and freedoms (Greig 32). Growth refers to visible changes that occur in the society as a result of equality or inequality and how their impacts on people. Inequality has serious impacts on growth and development and that is why nations and individuals have established various ways of eliminating this vice.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Types of Inequalities There are three types of inequalities in all societies and their causes and effects are similar. These classes originate from the issues that create differenc es among people, and that is why they are named after their subjects. Social inequality presents issues that affect people at the family and community level and this means that it is concerned with how people interact with others (Stewart 41). This includes gender, sports, communication, jobs and roles of different members in the society. Economic inequality involves unfair allocation of factors of production and resources that are important in increasing food production, creating employment opportunities and improving economies of nations. Political inequality refers to the unfair preferences that exist in the allocation and distribution of power within a region. This includes appointments, initiation of development projects, diplomatic relations, and other aspects that regulate government activities. The impacts of these inequalities may be similar or different depending on their occurrence, victims and conditions that promote them. Impacts of Inequality on Development The segment ation of aggregate demand in an economic system is a significant impact of inequality in the economy of a society. People in the middle class struggle to fit in the superfluous consumption groups and this force them to strain their budgets at the expense of basic needs like proper food and shelter. This group earns a low income, but cannot be satisfied with the way it lives. Therefore, it has to seek for various ways of ensuring that it does not fall into the low class category by struggling to emulate the behavior of the upper group. High consumerism usually takes place in regions that are close to poor and marginalized communities that have poor standards of living and cannot get proper food, medical attention or clean water (Muilanovic 33). The desire for secondary goods by the middle and upper classes and that for basic needs for the lower category triggers an imbalance between consumption and demand. This leads to wastage and misuse of resources by the rich and this undermines social cohesion in the society. The irritating consumerism of the rich and the shortage of basic needs in low income societies lead to the multiplication of conflicts between the rich and poor. In addition, it leads to increase in insecurity because the poor will struggle to get what they can afford through criminal activities like mugging, robbery and corruption (Sicherl 71). The existence of democratic governance becomes impossible because the marginalized groups will resist attempts to persuade them that the government has their interests at heart.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Inequality and Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Irresponsible environmental destruction practices will increase because the poor and rich populations will be struggling to utilize resources, particularly, non renewable to satisfy their needs. The structure of the production system will be affected by unskilled laborers becaus e of lack of money to pursue specialized training. It is very difficult for a society to develop if it cannot provide equal resources and opportunities for its people. Secondly, the supply and production system of a society will suffer if it allows inequality to exist. The high consumerism of the middle and upper classes and the high poverty levels of low income earners generate a low demand that cannot consume the goods produced by production systems that aim to expand their operations. This causes an imbalance between the level of consumption of goods and services and what the society produces. The market for goods and serviced produced through modern technology lack market and this exposes producers to stunted growth and some of them may be forced to close their companies (Kuznets 20). Development is blocked when investors spend a lot of money in production yet they cannot recover their capital because of low demand for their goods. In addition, there are possibilities of the dev elopment of a segmented demand that pushes production systems to produce goods and services that satisfy the few individuals that can afford to pay for expensive products. This enshrines a defective social stratum that protects the interests of those that have money to buy expensive goods. The middle and lower classes are usually forced to struggle to meet the high standards set by the bourgeoisies or recede to poverty and desperation. At the same time, the low middle-income earners limit the development of their production system because they constrain their producers to produce goods that meet their demands (Greig 44). Therefore, they cannot sell their products to the affluent communities because of their poor quality. In addition, producers at this level do not benefit from economies of scale, specialization, improved technology and skilled employees because they have inadequate capital to expand their operations. Therefore, a significant part of an enormous production potential will be sterilized at the bottom of the social pyramid. Capital formation will be limited to the production units that serve the upper class that has a dynamic market. Therefore, economic growth becomes stunted because of misdirected production capacity that will not produce adequate income to spur development. In addition, few businesses become capitalized and this restricts income distribution and the ability of a society to increase employment opportunities (Kloby 69). Therefore, social stability is affected because of inequalities and this compromises the security of citizens. These aspects become unstable and this threatens the survival of democratic governance.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, societies that have inequalities have low levels of savings and investments. Income and asset ownership inequality means that the upper class (usually very few individuals) recycles resources that should be invested in productive activities. They invest a significant part of their resources in speculative activities like hoarding and smuggling that are usually profitable compared to legal investments. The proletariats will be forced to buy their products at whichever price the bourgeoisie will deem necessary because they do not have alternatives. Secondly, this practice concentrates resources in the affluent sectors and this spurs consumerism and wastes resources that should be used for development purposes (Stewart 63). Economies should recycle resources by allowing money to move from one individual to another and create utilities. However, inequality concentrates money surpluses in a few hands and this reduces chances of recycling maximizing returns. People save their mo ney and use it for speculative activities that slow development in societies. These practices enable assets, income and savings to concentrate and be controlled by a few individuals and this prevents people from participating in economic activities that spur development because of limited resources and investment opportunities. In addition, they cause mismatches between production abilities of an economic structure and demand that arises from legal earnings and interests (Kloby 720. Therefore, the bourgeoisies will always have chances to manipulate financial institutions for their selfish interests and this creates favorable conditions for the occurrence of recurrent economic crises. In addition, science and technology are indispensable aspects that spur development in societies. These issues represent powerful leverages of contemporary growth because they enable people to simplify production processes. Market opportunities and scope expand permanently when people use discoveries an d innovations to improve their investments and enhance productivity. Science and technology focus on the expansion of knowledge and understanding various issues and this leads to efficiency in production processes. This means that market for sophisticated technology and skills will expand and fetch good returns because people hope to improve their investments (Pritchet par. 4). Therefore, they will invest their resources and concentrate them on technological aspects to ensure that they are able to defeat their competitors. They ignore social and environmental needs that are important in determining the future of people living in low income areas. The need to explore scientific innovations is usually driven by motivations to control the instruments of economic production and not maximization of returns and income. Therefore, the requirements of concentrated markets condition the scientific and technological results that are expected to benefit the society. Few individuals gain at the expense of environmental degradation, displacement of populations and a reduction of arable land in poverty stricken regions. Social cohesion, security and proper governance are indispensable issues that enable societies to develop. Equality means that all members of the society get equal burdens, efforts and results of their actions. However, some groups, especially the upper and middle income earners, do not take their responsibilities and they dump onto the poor the costs they are supposed to bear. It is very disturbing that they are the ones who get and enjoy the largest portion of the results of economic activities in their societies. Those in power use subtle mechanisms that cannot be understood by the poor that are usually illiterate, unskilled and inexperienced to perceive legal and economic interpretations. These uncouth mechanisms include regressive tax systems that ensure the cost of producing goods is met be consumers and differential access to learning and health care institutions (Kuznets 59). In addition, some of them withhold information about public work contracts or investment opportunities because of their proximity to influential politicians, investors and businesses. Social inequality brings different standards of living within a society by giving some people greater opportunities while neglecting others. This causes resentments and misgivings in societies that are supposed to be united; therefore, they hardly make any progress because of poor social cohesion that discourages dialogue and meaningful interactions. There is no way a hungry person can sit on the same table with an individual that has never understood the meaning of hunger. Social cohesion is weakened when oppressed individuals struggle to balance their lives with those of the upper and middle classes. Conflicts between the rich and poor become a daily routine and this creates enmity in the society. Therefore, it becomes difficult for a society to develop if its members have unsettled differences and each group thinks that it deserves better treatment than the other. Lastly, sustainable development is important in ensuring that societies achieve their objectives and everybody has access to quality and adequate goods and services. Inequality enables few individuals to control all factors of production and thus the poor have little say in development matters (Pritchet par. 7). However, sometimes governments and institutions intervene in these situations and offer loans or incentives to individuals to offset economic imbalances. It is necessary to explain that these loans are serviced by tax payers and this means that there is no rational for exposing them to unnecessary budgets when they are unable to afford basic needs. In addition, the bourgeoisies are the ones that control financial institutions and the interests gained on loans are shared with them because they are usually the majority shareholders in banks. People over borrow money from financial ins titutions and this means that they will have nothing to invest in income generating activities (Sicherl 86). The artificial maintenance of demand and supply balance is sustained by successive borrowing that exposes individuals to risks of bankruptcy. Societies cannot develop if they keep depending on loans to offset inequalities between the rich and poor. Conclusion Inequality hinders development because it limits investments and wastes the production potential of individuals and nations. In addition, it hinders small businesses from enjoying economies of scale and this means they will continue to produce cheap and poor goods. Moreover, it promotes irresponsible consumerism and creates conflicts between the rich and poor. Lastly, it destroys the environment and force people to rely on high interest loans to access quality education and medical services. Duflo, Esther. Women Empowerment and Economic Development. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research Press, 2011. Print. Grei g, Alastair. Challenging Global Inequality: Development Theory and Practice in the  21st Century. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Print. Kloby, Jerry. Inequality, Power, and Development: Issues in Political Sociology. New York: Humanity Books, 2003. Print. Kuznets, Simon. Economic Growth and Income Inequality. New York: Wiley, 2012. Print. Muilanovic, Branko. The Haves and the Have-Nots: A Brief and Idionsyncratic History of  Global Inequality. New York: Basic Books, 2012. Print. Pritchet, Lant. â€Å"Divergence, Big Time†, Journal of Economics Perspectives. 31 Oct. 1997. Web. www.cas.umt.edu/econ/documents/courses/advecondev/prichett Sicherl, Pavle. World Inequalities in Human Development Index. New York: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014. Print. Stewart, France. Horizontal Inequalities: A Neglected Dimension of Development:  Center for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity. Oxford: University of Oxford Press, 2011. Print.

Spoken English - Definition and Examples

Spoken English s Definition: The ways in which the English language is transmitted through a conventional system of sounds. Compare to written English. Spoken English, says linguist David Crystal, is the more natural and widespread mode of transmission, though ironically the one which most people find much less familiarpresumably because it is so much more difficult to see what is happening in speech than in writing (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed., 2003). In recent years, linguists have found it easier to see what is happening in speech through the availability of corpus resourcescomputerized databases containing real life examples of both spoken and written English. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999) is a contemporary reference grammar of English based on a large-scale corpus. The study of speech sounds (or spoken language) is the branch of linguistics known as phonetics. The study of sound changes in a language is phonology. See also: Speech (Linguistics)ColloquialConversationConversation AnalysisDialogueKey Events in the History of the English LanguagePresent-Day English (PDE)Standard EnglishVernacularWhat Is Standard English? Examples and Observations: Academic Bias Against Spoken English[L]inguists have inevitably had a long-standing and intensive contact with standard English. The nature of standard English as primarily a written variety, together with the immersion of academics in written English, does not augur well for their recognition of structures that may be more typical of spoken English than written English.(Jenny Cheshire, Spoken Standard English. Standard English: The Widening Debate, ed. by Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts. Routledge, 1999) The Relationship Between Spoken and Written English[I]n the course of the languages history, the relationship between spoken and written English has come nearly full circle. Throughout the Middle Ages, written English predominately served transcript functions, enabling readers to represent earlier spoken words or (oral) ceremony, or to produce durable records of events, ideas, or spoken exchange. By the seventeenth century, the written (and printed) word was developing its own autono mous identity, a transformation that matured in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and first half of the twentieth centuries. (However, through at least the end of the nineteenth century, spoken rhetorical skills were also seen as critically important to people with social and educational aspirations.) Since World War II, written English (at least in America) has increasingly come to reflect everyday speech. While writing on-line with computers has hastened this trend, computers didnt initiate it. As writing growingly mirrors informal speech, contemporary spoken and written English are losing their identity as distinct forms of language.(Naomi S. Baron, Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where Its Heading. Routledge, 2000) Teaching IlliteracyOne main danger is that spoken English continues to be judged by the codified standards of written English, and that teaching pupils to speak standard English may, in fact, be to teach them to speak in formal written English. A test of spoken English may become a test of ones abilities to speak a very restricted codea formal English used routinely by dons, civil servants, and cabinet ministers. It is not very far removed from the language of formal debate. Such a view of spoken English can produce an artificial and unnatural English and can even promote a kind of illiteracy which is as damaging to users of English as not being able to write literate English; for to have everyone speaking and writing only one codea standard written English codegenerates an illiteracy almost as grave as would be the case if everyone were only able to use a local dialect.(Ronald Carter, Investigating English Discourse: Language, Literacy, and Literature. Routledge, 1997) Henry Sweet on Spoken English (1890)The unity of spoken English is still imperfect: it is still liable to be influenced by local dialectsin London itself by the cockney dialect, in Edinburgh by the Lothian Scotch dialect, and so on. . . . [I]t changes from generation to generation, and is not absolutely uniform even among speakers of the same generation, living in the same place and having the same social standing.(Henry Sweet, A Primer of Spoken English, 1890) The Value of Teaching Spoken English (1896)Not only should English grammar be taught with reference to the nature of language and the history of English, but it should also take account of the spoken, as distinct from the written, form. The reasons for this seem to me many and excellent. For instance, it is a misfortune that the English language makes its appeal to the educated mind, mainly through the written and printed form. The appeal to the ear and the appeal to the eye, which should strengthen one another, are thus distinctly separate and divergent. Our orthography encourages this separation. It is, therefore, the more important that textbooks of grammar should make some attempt to counteract this tendency.(Oliver Farrar Emerson, The Teaching of English Grammar, 1896) The Lighter Side of Spoken EnglishIf Opals goin to be a school-teacher, mebbe she wants summat to practice on, grinned her father.Oh, Pa, you mustnt say summatit isnt a word, remonstrated his daughter.Aint a word ! shouted her father with increasing excitement. Well, hear that! How do you know it aint a word?It isnt in the dictionary, said Opal.Shucks, disparaged Pa, whats the dictionary got to do with it? The words that git into the dictionary aint common talkin words nohow; theyre written wordsnobody puts talk into a dictionary.Why not? questioned Opal, astonished at her fathers apparent knowledge of the making of dictionaries.Cause why? Cause spoken words is too lively for emwho can go round and keep track of every word thats spoke? I can make up a hull mouthful myself, and no dictionaryll ever know anything about itsee?(Bessie R. Hoover, A Graduated Daughter. Everybodys Magazine, December 1909)

Human Resource Development as the Expansion of Human Capital in an Org Essay - 10

Human Resource Development as the Expansion of Human Capital in an Organization - Essay Example Therefore, this helps to provide competence and effectiveness in Human resources. An organization should start development programs and training in order to develop skills and competencies in its employees. Human resources development also brings about employee commitment. For employees to be committed to their jobs, they need to be well trained and efficient. This can only be achieved through Human Resources Development. Development opportunities and proper training help employees to feel committed to the organization. Human Resources Development also brings about job satisfaction. If well developed and oriented, employees tend to portray a higher degree of commitment. Development and orientation help to inspire employees for a better performance. In the long run, this brings about job satisfaction. Development of human knowledge through Human Resources development helps the employees to get career development opportunities. Career development involves personal development efforts. This can be achieved by matching development opportunities and training with the employee’s desires. According to Elevator speech 1 by Dimitri Taylor, Human Resources development improves a company’s with its knowledge about how human capital affects organizational success. Human Resources development equips managers with information on how they can improve the success of the organization through employees. Human Resources Development also ensures that there are safety measures in an organization. It does this by ensuring that the organization follows the U.S Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulations. Safety in the work environment may be achieved through maintenance of accurate records and work logs. Human Resources Development also ensures safety in an organization through the development of programs, which reduce the number of workplace injuries. Maintenance of safety in an organization is important because it ensures efficiency in the organization’s operations.

Land Law - Land lease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Land Law - Land lease - Essay Example In Bruton v London & Quadrant Housing Trust1, have upheld the existence of contractual, non-proprietary rights lease where the landlord has no proprietary estate from which to grant a proprietary lease. However, it must be created in the proper manner and it must satisfy the definition contained in LPA 1925 s. 205(1)(xxvii). The 1925 scheme was reformed in 1986 (Land Registration Act 1986) and again by the 2002 Act, which has been accused of introducing yet more confusion to the law of leases. There are 3 kinds of lease, legal lease, equitable lease and tenancies by estoppel. Legal lease created by deed, this includes periodic tenancies (LPA 1925 SS. 52, 54). Due to the doctrine of Walsh v Lonsdale2, a contract for a lease operates as an equitable lease without any further action being necessary. The LP (MP) A3 1989 s. 2 supersedes s. 40 of the LPA 1925. A tenancy by estopple operates where the landlord has no title to the land when a lease is granted. The LRA 2002 has made substantial changes to the formalities required for leases, most of which require registration or protection on the land register. Three types of lease are recognised by the 2002 Act: Most leases, which fall outside the scope of compulsory first registration, can be enforced either if protected by a notice on the register or if they fall within the overriding category. ... Leases requiring protection by a notice on the register. Short leases, which override the register. Most leases, which fall outside the scope of compulsory first registration, can be enforced either if protected by a notice on the register or if they fall within the overriding category. The ultimate aim is for as many interests as possible to be entered on the registered. But Leases of three years or shorter cannot be protected by notice and so are 'only' overriding. Short leases (not exceeding seven years) can override the register. Where the tenant is in actual occupation, this protects his Leases on first registration (Sched. 1 para. 2), or on a transfer either under the 'old' law (LRA 1925 s.70 (1)(g)) or the LRA 2002 (Sched. 3 para. 2). In Street v Mountford4, Lord Templeman suggested that there are three characteristics of a lease, these are exclusive possession, a determinate period, for a rent or other consideration. Exclusive possession means that the tenant has control over any one who enters the premises and can exclude everyone, including the landlord. There will be no exclusive possession if: the landlord is entitled to move the occupier at any time from one room to another according to Westminister city Council v Clarke5, there was held to be no exclusive possession. Someone merely has exclusive occupation, such as a hotel guest or a student in a university hall of residence or a resident in a nursing home (Abbeyfield) (Harpenden) Society Ltd v Woods6; In Marcou v De Silvesa7 the agreement required the landlord to provide services. There may be exclusive possession even if: In Aslan v Murphy 8 the landlord retains a set of keys. In Antoniades v

Human freedom and the ten commandments Essay Example for Free

Human freedom and the ten commandments Essay When Jesus was asked, What must I do to inherit eternal life? , he replied: You know the Commandments, keep these and you will live. It has been said, that the Ten Commandments are not simple rules mandated by God, but rather, this set of rules is considered as a gift given to men in order for them to live the life that God has promised. Although the word â€Å"commandment†, by itself, imports something mandatory and obligatory, it must be understood that God has granted each one of his people freedom and independence to choose how he or she will act, and hence, human freedom is an important topic to be discussed alongside the Ten Commandments. It will be seen, that the kind of life that men live is simply a reflection of how he uses the freedom that he has been gifted with. A person can either live a life full of one spent as a good follower of God. Although some would say that it is a question of fate, destiny, or maybe even luck, the truth is that, a person lives a life based on his own choices and decisions. As have been stated, men have been gifted with freedom, and it is up to him how he will utilize this gift. Every person has different forms of needs and wants that have to be dealt with in everyday life. This is where freedom sets in. In allowing absence of restriction, God permits every individual the opportunity to shape his life. It has been stated that this is one risk that God chose to take. â€Å"God risked much in creating us humans with the freedom, now, to unleash horrendous nuclear disaster or to love our fellows across all boundaries. † (Grider, 1994). It is the freedom that each one has been blessed with that enables him to understand and appreciate the life that he has and all the beauty that comes with it. On the other hand, if this freedom is abused, then the consequences that go with it, would also have to be dealt with by the individual concerned. Being free entails a lot of responsibility. It is believed that God granted every individual the gift of freedom, not for the sole reason that he be boundless or limitless. Man is given freedom for him to be responsible for all the things that he says, does or even thinks of. True enough, some philosophers believe that the things that happen to each individual can be traced to the actions and decisions that he chooses to take. Most of the times, it is not up to the heavens if a good or bad thing happens to one person. More of than not, everything that happens to a person can be traced to the course of action that he chose to take. The scriptures that God instructed to be drafted, in essence, are mere forms of guidance for men; but in the end, it is human freedom which will eventually dictate whether or not an individual will live his life by these guidelines. The concept of human freedom is more often discussed by mentioning the story of what happened to Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden. As has been aptly stated, â€Å"these questions as to the nature of human freedom arise especially when we turn our attention to the question of the origin of sin. Only consider how many times the origin of sin has been ascribed to this human freedom of choice, implying this twofold power of man’s nature and of his creaturely existence: to sin or not to sin; a good part and an evil part of his nature. † (Berkouwer, 1962). True enough, God could have stopped the serpent from interacting with Adam and Eve, but due to the freedom that he bestowed the two, they had the choice as to whether or not to take the apple that the serpent offered them. Ultimately then, it is this choice that they made which is the root cause of why they were banished from the garden of Eden. It would appear then that despite the Ten Commandments being set down by God to be sent to his people, the same is not precisely a set of obligatory rules imposed upon men. Rather, the Ten Commandments are considered as a guide as to how each person should live if he wants to experience the kind of life that God promised. This is a kind of life full of happiness, peace, beauty and love. A person’s freedom can lead to this if a person, in choosing paths to take, keeps in mind what the Ten Commandments speak of. Ultimately, it would depend upon the person if he will live the kind of life promised by God ever since the olden times, or if he will use his freedom to lead him to a kind of unspeakable and despicable kind of living. REFERENCE â€Å"The Ten Commandments†, http://www. whitestonejournal. com/tencommandments J. Kenneth Grider , â€Å"Human Freedom†, 1994, http://www. bibleviews. com/humanfreedom. html G. C. Berkouwer, â€Å"Human Freedom†, 1962, http://www. the-highway. com/freedom2_Berkouwer. html

The Lives and Contests of the Gladiators :: Papers

The Lives and Contests of the Gladiators One form of entertainment in the Roman world was gladiatorial contests. In these, the Roman citizens would go to watch gladiators fight, often to the death. Today, these contests seem brutal and cruel, but at the time it was very popular and widely accepted. The Roman people would quite happily judge over whether a man would live or die. Why were the contests so entertaining that they would cost a man his life over it. There were different types of gladiators and different types of contests to keep the citizens interested. The gladiators were traditionally slaves or convicts and therefore very low in the social hierarchy. We also know that they were low down in the hierarchy because they were sold and given between masters, for example one advertisement said: "Twenty pairs of gladiators, given by Lucretius Satrius Valens, priest of Nero, and ten pairs of gladiators will fight". However, despite this apparent lack of social standing, gladiators could become very popular and famous and could eventually be freed. Gladiator is taken from the term "gladius", which means sword. They were originally used during funeral services for dead heroes. Fights between them would be held during the funeral to celebrate the hero. This tradition was taken from the Etruscans. Although today we would see such a custom as cruel, it was in fact made less so than it originally was. Festus wrote - "it was the custom to sacrifice prisoners on the tombs of valorous warriors; when the cruelty of this custom became evident, it was decided to make gladiators fight before the tomb. It seems strange to modern people that somebody would want to have people die at their funeral, but then it was seen as "appeasing the spirit" of the dead man, by honouring them with as big a thing as the life of a man. The Romans would not have seen the loss of a gladiator as too much anyway, as the slaves or convicts that became gladiators were generally considered unimportant anyway.

Extended commentary of ‘On the Departure Platform’ by Thomas Hardy Essay

On the Title: This is obviously a metaphor for the ending of a â€Å"moment†, as well as the literal description of the place where many of the images (within the poem) are based; on a train platform, where the persona and his female love interest part. The title introduces the poem’s key theme to the reader – a separation of young love, but not a permanent one. As one reads further into the poem itself, the persona comments on the painful fact that humanity leaves behind time as well. Overall Structure: Hardy writes in 6 stanzas of English quatrains with an alternate rhyme scheme (a similar technique used in other poems) to concentrate the poem. The last line of these stanzas is conspicuously shorter than the others – usually four or five syllables to the other nine or ten. Hardy does this to a) draw attention to them but also b) to the theme they nearly all have in common. They all illustrate, in the first four stanzas, a diminuation in the woman’s size; as an optical effect, she gets smaller the further she moves away into the crowd. This, in some ways, adds to the poignancy of the poem. Themes: Time (the way that it works), Distance, Pain Difficult Language Notes: ‘Nebulous’ means cloudy. First Stanza Notes: Hardy’s poem is full of visual ideas – they are continuous to provide an important effect to be later considered. Thus his opening line is of an image; â€Å"We kissed at the barrier; and passing through/ She left me.† Hardy intentionally uses a stark and blunt image – the enjambment highlights the phrases â€Å"passing through† (immediately presenting images of movement, perhaps through Time as well) and â€Å"She left me†. One can feel the emotion in that conspicuously short phrase. â€Å"And moment by moment got/ Smaller and smaller.† Continuing with the diminuation of the woman’s figure, Hardy uses mirroring comparatives to emphasize the change. The stanza then ends with the shortened line; ‘She was but a spot;’. Notice the empty sounds in ‘spot’, but the harsh consonance – it invokes a decisively negative emotion. Also note the semicolon at the end of the line. The sense of the sentence continues into the next stanza; viewing the poem as a whole is crucially important. Second Stanza Notes: Again, Hardy presents an image; ‘A wee white spot of muslin fluff’ – the use of the word fluff (as in a fluffy cloud) is complimented by the use of ‘nebulous white’ later on. Hardy imagines the woman as a cloud; an indistinct mass of hazy material. This is important metaphorically. We receive no description of the woman’s face, only her clothing. She has no name, no identity; this memory of a by-gone moment whilst in love (as revealed later) bears none of the crucial intimacy that one would expect such a relationship to possess. You would expect a lover to be able to remember at least facial features! This lack of distinction is to be later explored. Hardy introduces his ideas about perspective and sight in this stanza. He introduces key renaissance optical theory in the line ‘down that diminishing platform bore’. This is the idea of two converging lines eventually reaching a vanishing point. The diminishing platform mirrors the diminishing view of the woman – is this (metaphorically) an emotional statement along with a literal visual one? Note; ‘through hustling crowds of gentle and rough’ refers to the class system of ‘gentlefolk’ and the ‘rough’ of the lower classes. Its only importance is in distinguishing between the figure of the woman and the crowd – the persona is only focussed on her! Third Stanza Notes: Hardy then explores the same image further, with a focus on colour contrast: â€Å"Under the lamplight’s fitful glowers, Behind dark groups from far and near, Whose interests were apart from ours, She would disappear,† Hardy compares the darkness of the scene – which is, remember, in a typically smoky Victorian railway station – to the pure white of the woman’s dress. It stands out. Indeed, he focuses entirely upon this image, as it is the beauty of it which he wishes to recall; therefore, all other individuals become ‘dark’ metaphoric areas in his memory. The line â€Å"Their interests were apart from ours† further advances this – the persona does not care about any other intentions other than his own, and perhaps his partner’s. It could be argued that Hardy creates an intimidating scene around the woman. ‘Glowers’ are angry expressions. The fact that they are considered ‘fitful’ – or appropriate – for the occasion reveals an odd nuance in the persona’s attitude. If it is appropriate, then is the persona angry too? Why would he be? Upset, understandably, but is he frustrated at losing his love? Or is he angry at slowly losing the moment (in terms of memory) itself? On a final note, observe how there is a comma at the end of the stanza. This allows the sense of Hardy’s verse to ‘roll on’, like an exaggerated form of enjambment. Fourth Stanza Notes: Hardy does this to invite comparison between the segmented lines: â€Å"She would disappear,/ Then show again,† He emphasizes the apparent suddenness of the woman’s appearances, whilst also increasing a sense of distance between the figure and the persona. Note how she ‘flickers’ – is this flickering due to a slow loss of clear recollection of memory? This is a nice idea! The figure of the woman herself changes in the following lines, either in memoriam or literally (â€Å"that flexible form, that nebulous white,†). Despite occupying the persona’s entire mental capacity, the image lacks any definition in terms of facial or emotional features. This is highly inconsistent with the idea that the persona cherishes her! (As, indeed, he confirms; â€Å"she who was more than my life to me†.) Why compare an individual whom one should know so well to a cloud? In any case, it is at this point that the figure disappears entirely, with a noticeable ellipse. Here Hardy comes out of his historic mood and into a (near) present tense. Fifth and Sixth Stanzas Notes: Hardy once again comes to the point of his poem at the end, in a comment upon the inability to retain a moment, and the irony of suspending such a moment in literary form. Although the persona views the memory fondly, and has penned â€Å"penned new plans since†, there is a decided lack of evidence for any future physical recurrences of the woman. It is perhaps suggested, therefore, that the relationship has ended at this point – in terms of language, the persona has yet to see her again and maybe never will. Indeed, Hardy uses polysyndeton and recurring dashes, along with the conditional tense to emphasize the uncertainty as to the relationship’s future. Hardy’s point does not regard the relationship, however – therefore the truth is left purposely unclear. By contrast, the aim of the poem is to point to the fact that â€Å"nought happens twice thus† – the persona will never experience such a moment again. This idea is introduced in the last line of the fifth stanza (â€Å"But never as then!†), in a phrase made noticeable through its contracted nature. Then Hardy switches to a present tense exchange. â€Å"-And why, young man, must eternally fly A joy you’ll repeat if you love her well? * O friend, nought happens twice thus; why, I cannot tell!† Whilst also emphasizing the persona’s youth, Hardy makes his tragic point clear once again. However, there exists an irony rooted in his words. For, due to the existence of the poem itself, it can be argued that the moment is quite attainable (as proved above!), but through the use of literary suspension.